Friday, August 21, 2020

Renaissance Art and Culture Essay Example For Students

Renaissance Art and Culture Essay Despite the fact that the Renaissance saw transformations in numerous scholarly exercises, just as social and political disarray, it is maybe most popular for its masterful turns of events. Leonardo father Vinci and Michelangelo were motivated by the term Renaissance man. Renaissance impact was felt in writing, theory, craftsmanship, music, governmental issues, science, religion, and different parts of scholarly examination. Renaissance researchers utilized the humanist technique in study, and scanned for authenticity and human feeling in workmanship. The civic establishments of Greece and Rome were rediscovered, moving an enthusiasm for Classical realizing which tested medieval convictions and thoughts. The populace was turning out to be wealthier which prompted an expansion in exchange and travel and the spread of new thoughts. The ascent in thriving additionally produced an enthusiasm for training, upheld the prospering of human expressions and advanced logical disclosures and new innovations. Maybe the most significant of these was the print machine, which permitted the dissemination of data to an a lot more extensive crowd than any time in recent memory, further expanding the interest for more information. Impact OF Renaissance was considerably more than a resurrection of old style workmanship. It was a dismissal of the medieval times, which were Just consummation. During medieval occasions, human expressions were concerned for the most part with religion, with the life of the soul, with the great beyond. Little significance was given to life on earth aside from as a groundwork for the following scene. In any case, as the 1 fifth century started, Italians were directing their concentration toward the world about them. Individuals began to contemplate nonstructural, or nonreligious, matters. They started setting confidence in their own characteristics and their own significance. This new soul was called humanism. Order, unquestioning confidence, submission to authoritythese medieval advantages were o longer aimlessly acknowledged. Individuals posed inquiries and needed to locate their own answers. Craftsmen were among the main influenced by the new soul of humanism. In their work they started to concentrate on human life on earth. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE ART The Italian Renaissance was one of the most gainful periods throughout the entire existence of workmanship, with huge quantities of exceptional bosses to be found in numerous focuses and in all the significant fields painting, model, and engineering. In Florence, in the main portion of the fifteenth century, there were extraordinary trailblazers in every one of these fields, whose work raked a start off new period throughout the entire existence of craftsmanship. The possibility of masterful virtuoso got mainstream; Michelangelo was called divine in view of the enormity of his imaginative forces. In the Renaissance, craftsmanship and science were firmly associated. Both the craftsman and the researcher took a stab at the authority of the physical world, and the specialty of painting benefitted by two fields of study that might be called logical: life systems, which made conceivable a progressively exact portrayal of the human body, and numerical viewpoint. Humanistic training, in light of morals and the aesthetic sciences, was pushed s an approach to make experienced residents who could effectively take an interest in the political procedure. Humanists commended the brain, magnificence, power, and gigantic capability of individuals. They accepted that individuals had the option to encounter God straightforwardly and ought to have an individual, passionate relationship to their confidence. God had made the world yet people had the option to partake in his magnificence by turning out to be makers themselves. Effect ON PAINTING The artwork in France was known as Florentine painting. The methods supported by the Florentine were gum based paint and fresco. The Tempera Painting: In gum based paint painting a dry surface was utilized. A wooden board was grounded with a few layers of mortar in stick, and the work was then replicated from a drawing. The hues were tempered with egg or vegetable egg whites. The Fresco Painting: The fresco procedure, utilized for the wall painting artistic creations in Florentine places of worship, included work of art on wet mortar. The sketch was first duplicated on the mortar divider in unpleasant framework, and the part on which the painter was going to work during a given day was then secured with new mortar. The painter needed to redraw the part that had been secured by the new mortar and include the hues. As the mortar dried, the hues came a perpetual piece of it. Craftsmen DURING RENAISSANCE The start of the incomparable Florentine school of painting came in the medieval times. Nazi Art EssayThe most prominent of the 1 fifth century Venetian painters was Giovanni Beeline Antennas companionship with Beeline affected Venetian composition. Bellinis rich, smooth shading and warm lighting draw out the human characteristics of his peaceful Madonna and holy people. He was one of the main Italians to utilize oil paint on canvas. Two of Giovanni Bellinis understudies turned into the most remarkable Venetian painters of the High Renaissance. They were Giorgio and Titian. Gorinesss brilliant and graceful pictures pulled in a huge after of specialists known as Egregiousness painters. Titian started as an Egregiousness painter yet created a long ways past this style. He accomplished such dominance in the treatment of brilliant, warm shading that he was viewed as the equivalent of Michelangelo. In his late works considers and articles liquefy along with a gleam of light and colora treatment of painting that appears to be extremely present day. Renaissance in the North Oil painting had gotten well known in Venice before the finish of the fifteenth century. The Venetians took in a lot from Flemish craftsmen. The Flemish painter Jan van is frequently given the acknowledgment for building up a significant oil method. The Flemish and German styles of the mid 1 fifth century were totally not quite the same as the early Renaissance style of the Florentine. Rather than basic geometric courses of action of three-dimensional figures, as in Mosaics works of art, the northern Europeans planned for making sensible pictures by rendering endless detailsintricate floor designs, drapery structures, and smaller than expected scenes. This mind boggling style of the north didn't create from a humanistic old style workmanship however from the Gothic custom of magic and tormented authenticity. Flemish Painting Van Cocks Madonna painted in 1436, is an amazing case of Flemish authenticity. All the subtleties of the roomthe designed floor covering, the defensive layer of Saint George, and the architecturemake this image appear to be genuine. There is no indication of the Italian feeling of magnificence here: the figures are not glorified. In the essences of the individuals can be seen the wrinkles and blemishes of reality. A standout amongst other known Flemish specialists of the second 50% of the 1 fifth century was Hugo van deer Goes. At the point when the Florentine painters saw Hogs work, they were dazzled by its exact quality. This Flemish impact can be seen in later Florentine meshes. Bit by bit the hard layouts of the Flemish style became gentler as a result of Italian impacts, and by the center of the sixteenth century the thoughts of the Renaissance had been retained into Flemish workmanship. German Painting The German craftsman Albrecht Udder went to Italy, where he was intrigued by the open country and by the workmanship he saw. While in Venice, he came to know and appreciate Giovanni Beeline. Straight shot, thus, appreciated Udders work. Udder had been prepared in the Gothic custom of German craftsmanship. He had figured out how to mirror nature precisely and meticulously. He was an ace in the utilization of delicate line in drawings, woodcuts, inscriptions, and artworks. The End of the Renaissance During the second quarter of the sixteenth century, characteristic started to grab hold in European craftsmanship. This was the principal really global European style. Renaissance craftsmanship had been normally Italian in style, yet quirk created all through Europe and consolidated numerous customs. The craft of northern painters, for example, Pitter Burgher the Elder and Udder can be viewed as a major aspect of this school. So can crafted by Michelangelo and Tinderbox and numerous other sixteenth century Italian specialists. Crafted by the French painters of Fontainebleau and that of El Greece in Spain is additionally part of the mannerist style. Idiosyncrasy was both a response against and an outgrowth of the High Renaissance. It was exemplified by strangely protracted or contorted figures and the supplanting of point of view with a compliment and less composed kind of room. Before the finish of the sixteenth century the High Renaissance in Italy had offered approach to late characteristic and the early elaborate. Be that as it may, the revelations and goals of the Renaissance stayed as a lasting legacy to all specialists who came a short time later. The most significant commitment of the Renaissance was its vision of man as lovely, respectable, and autonomous.

Sunday, July 12, 2020

Advertisers Use Principles Of Visual Search And Attention To Increase

Advertisers Use Principles Of Visual Search And Attention To Increase Advertisers Use Principles Of Visual Search And Attention To Increase The Likelihood That People â€" Essay Example > Principles of visual search and attentionIntroductionVisual search refers to the use of one’s sense of perception to carefully look through the visible environment for a certain targeted feature or object among many other objects or features, for example, locating a particular model of a mobile phone on a display shelf. It involves the engagement of an individual’s sense of mental and visual perception to locate an item even without moving the eyes (Trick Enns, 1998). On the other hand selective attention refers to an individual’s ability to remain focused on a particular object even when faced with many other distracting objects while advertising is an art of attracting the attention of a targeted market in order to persuade them to purchase a certain item or service (Wesley McEntarffer, 2010). This paper will look at how advertisers use principles of visual search and attention to increase the chances that people notice their advertisement messages. Attention principles in AdvertisingAccording to Dukas (2002), attention is a cognitive process whereby one factor in the environment receives selective concentration while other factors are ignored. A good example of attention may involve carefully listening to what someone is saying in a room full of people while ignoring the conversation s of other people within the room (Dukas 2002). Advertising principles are mainly based on the psychological processes of attention, cognitive psychology and perception so as to draw consumers to the use of certain brands or products. In order to capture the interests of the viewers advertisers’ first goal is to focus on capturing the attention of consumers. Some of the ways that advertisers use to capture the attention of consumers is by showing strong visuals, bright colors and movements within the visual scenes. This approach is mainly based on the principal of attention control through orienting stimuli. For commercials, most advertisers prefer to use attracti ve models in trendy clothes in order to capture the attention of viewers. Soon as the attention of the viewer is drawn using these orienting stimuli, the advertisers then focuses on retaining the attention of the consumer (Roy, 2009). Visual imagery in advertisingThe art of advertising requires one to study the behaviour and perception of people in order to apply the proper principles that will draw the attention of the intended user on a long term. Therefore for one to win the attention of the targeted audience the message must be presented in a manner that it captures the logical and emotional meanings of the targeted recipient (Zaltaman 1995; Rossiter 1982). It must establish a deeper meaning and interest in the mind of the recipient. In order to achieve this, advertisers use the principles of visual research and attention to captivate the minds of their targeted audience and enhance the visual imagery of the targeted individuals. Visual imagery is a mental activity that enable s an individual to visualize a concept or idea. It triggers the release and processing of information in the working memory (Woodman et al 2001). With visual imagery an individual can be stimulated into responding to a certain event, object or feature without the actual object, event or feature being present at the time (Burns et al 1993). This is the real potential with visual imagery. It triggers the five physical senses that is sight, hear, taste, touch and smell. As a result advertisers use visual imagery to stimulate and attract the attention of consumers. It has the potential to bring into remembrance information that has been kept in the long term memory and present it into the working memory. In addition, images that are inbuilt or stored in the brain are more attached and relevant to an individual as they are being generated from the mental processes of the individual and are not as a result of an external factor. This means that the information is already stored in the l ong term memory of the individual and can therefore be easily brought into the working memory by stimulation, for example, rerunning an advertisement. However, excessive repetition of the advertisement may reduce the attention of the recipient by a considerable degree (Peiter Wedel 1999). Visual imagery has the capacity to generate or stimulate several senses at the same time and this provides an opportunity for the brain to process the information in more ways as more senses are involved. This improves the mental process thus providing a way in which advertisement can be effective by staying in the mind of the viewer even after the mental processing. Because images last longer in the mind of an individual it is safe to argue that such an approach to advertising will produce better results as the processing of the information is being drawn from the individual’s long term memory as compared to an approach that only triggers a limited response and engagement of the brain (Burns e t al 1993).

Wednesday, May 20, 2020

Imperialism - an Irony - Shooting an Elephant - 1255 Words

Imperialism  ­ an irony. Imperialism is a no ­win situation: ââ€"  ââ€"  ââ€"  Throughout the short text we see Orwell as a character torn between two completely juxtaposed ideals: that in support of the oppressed and the colonial. We are barely halfway through the opening sentence when Orwell declares how he was â€Å"hated by large numbers of people† and we quickly learn of the immense anger he has towards his tormentors. Initially, we learn of Orwell’s personal experience of power and how he is â€Å"hated by large numbers of people†. ââ€"  We quickly see how much of a struggle it is for Orwell to endure the bitterness of the locals. ââ€"‹ ââ€"‹ ââ€"  Orwell paints the â€Å"sneering yellow faces of young men† and talks of the insults â€Å"hooted† at his†¦show more content†¦This metaphor is then extended to the idea of a puppet. We see this image of the crowd pulling at Orwell’s strings, physically moving his limbs for him and forcing him to act against his will. We see the nature of the pupett having no will or mind of it’s own, not ability to decide in it’s fate but instead purely reliant on those who control it suggesting Orwell’s ultimate dependance upon the Burmese in his decision making process. The idea of performance suggests a nature of â€Å"playing up† to the locals. It suggests that the colonials are adhering to some sort of stereotype, trying to keep up appearances, to match the expectations of the people. He suggests this idea of an illusion of control, that the colonials think they have free will, power yet in fact they are lead by their own stereotype: ââ€"   ââ€"   ââ€"   ââ€"   ââ€"   ââ€"   ââ€"‹ We again see the will of those people is a stronger force that the threat of Orwell’s weapon. We see the gun is ultimately futile and so too is Orwell’s power. â€Å"He wears a mask, and his face grows to fit it†. This metaphor really hammers home the idea of acting up to stereotype. The colonials, as colonials, feel they need to act in a particular way and thus their free will is impeded. They feel they must do what is â€Å"expected of them†. â€Å"A sahib has got to act like a Sahib† We see Orwell performs the role that is expected of him, but in pretending, in performance, heShow MoreRelatedShooting an Elephant840 Words   |  4 PagesSYMBOLISM, METAPHORS AND IRONY IN THIS ESSAY AND EXPLAIN HOW HE USES EACH OF THESE TO CONVEY HIS ARGUMENT OR MESSAGE In the extract, Shooting An Elephant Orwell conveys his message through the use of various persuasive tools. He wants the reader to identify when somebody assumes power. This technique is used to show that the powerful are also a captive to the will of people they control. Everyone involved in the situation becomes affected. In this instance, imperialism has a negative affect onRead MoreAnalysis of George Orwells Shooting an Elephant Essay example1050 Words   |  5 PagesTechnique Analysis of ‘Shooting an elephant’ Written by George Orwell Essay by Arthur Diennet In 1936, George Orwell published his short story ‘Shooting an elephant’ in an English magazine. Since then, it has been republished dozens of times and holds a place as a definitive anti-colonial piece of literature, in an era where the British Empire was at its peak and covered almost 1/3 of the Earth’s surface. George Orwell believed that â€Å"†¦imperialism was an evil thing...† and uses much themesRead MoreGeorge Orwells Style of Writing Essay example1038 Words   |  5 Pagescruelty. Soon after succeeding in gaining the readers sympathy by expressing the narrators feelings as an Anglo-Indian in Burma, Orwell shifts his focus on criticizing imperialism. In his second paragraph, the narrator overtly utters his criticism towards imperialism when he says I had already made up my mind that imperialism was an evil thing... I was all for the Burmese and all against their oppressors, the British.At this point, the reader can interpret that the narrator has sympathy forRead More George Orwells Writing Essay examples899 Words   |  4 PagesGeorge Orwells Writing George Orwell is best known for his fiction writing, particularly Animal Farm and 1984. In Shooting an Elephant he demonstrates his talent in non-fiction writing. Not everyone was familiar with the way in which the British Imperial rule worked and Orwell uses his rhetorical language to bring the readers of his essay into the immediate world that was that of an imperial officer. Orwell?s essay is written in the first person perspective. This was done deliberatelyRead MoreEssay about Shooting an Elephant by George Orwell1527 Words   |  7 PagesShooting an Elephant by George Orwell Few supervisors experience lack of respect and denunciation from workers because of their positions in a company. Supervisors take actions to preserve the image of authority before subordinates and from being ridiculed by their workers, even if the supervisors object these types of actions. The essay Shooting an Elephant relates to this situation. The author of this essay is George Orwell. The author talks about his work and personal experience that emphasizesRead MoreAnalysis Of George Orwell s Shooting An Elephant 941 Words   |  4 Pages  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   George Orwell’s  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Shooting an Elephant† is a story about the experience of the narrator who was asked to shoot a wild elephant. He was a police officer who worked for British imperialists and killing the elephant would help him receive good judgement from the villagers in Burma. Orwell says that imperialism is evil and should be eliminated while others think that it is good for the public. The purpose of Orwell’s story is to show the audience that imperialism is harmful and not as good asRead MoreAnalysis Of George Orwell s Orwell Shooting An Elephant 1189 Words   |  5 Pages  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Orwell’s Shooting an Elephant†: Effect of Imperialism in Burma Imperialism is a state of mind, fueled by the arrogance of superiority that could be adopted by any nation irrespective of its geographical location in the world. 1. Evidence of the existence of empires dates back to the dawn of written history in Egypt and in Mesopotamia, where local leaders extended their realms by conquering other states and holding them, when possible, in a state of subjection and semi subjection. Imperialism was rebornRead MoreAnalysis Of George Orwell s Shooting An Elephant 1233 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"Shooting an Elephant† â€Å"Shooting an Elephant† is about the guilt of British colonialism that George Orwell faces as a sub-divisional police officer. Based on his experiences, he has seen the real wickedness of imperialism. In â€Å"Shooting an Elephant†, Orwell displays the evil of imperialism as harsh, belligerent, and provoking. First, Orwell encounters the harshness of imperialism. Furthermore, Orwell says, â€Å" the sneering yellow faces of young men†¦ the insults hooted me when I was at a safe distanceRead More Shooting an Elephant Essay1373 Words   |  6 Pagesessay, Shooting an Elephant, George Orwell illustrates his experiences as a British police officer, and reflects it to the nature of imperialism. He hates his job as a police officer in Moulmein because an â€Å"anti-European feeling was very bitter† due to British Empire’s dictatorship in Burma. Therefore, Orwell, a white man is being treated disrespectfully by the Burmese which allows him to hate his job and British Empire, the root of everything. However, the incident of shooting of an elephant givesRead MoreCritical Analysis Of Shooting An Elephant1165 Words   |  5 PagesIn George Orwell’s story ‘Shooting an Elephant’, insight is given into the life of an oppressor in the British Empire. Orwell, hav ing undergone a significant personal experience, illustrates his experience of imperialism and the resounding effects is has on the ethical conduct and ideals of man, not only of the oppressed but also in regards of the oppressor. Orwell’s ‘Shooting an Elephant’ attempts to convey the sacrifice of one’s morality in service of imperialism. Through the spread of the British

Wednesday, May 6, 2020

Dr. Clark s Biko Cry Freedom ( Bos Par - 1061 Words

Ten years after the death of Stephen Bantu Biko (1946-77), South Africa’s â€Å"Daily Dispatch† journalist, Donald Woods, wrote Biko: Cry Freedom (Bos par. 1). His book was subsequently adapted for film and produced by hollywood director: Richard Attenborough (Bos par.1). The film was released on the heels of South Africa’s nation-wide declaration of a â€Å"state of emergency† in 1986 (Clark and Worger xvi). Though some claim Attenborough’s film is a biographical look at the life, trial, and death of Biko, this claim strikes me as problematic. Told mainly from Wood’s perspective, the film touches on the formation of the South African Students’ Organization (SASO) under the co-leadership of Biko. Initially, viewers learn about Biko’s work with the Black Community Programmes (BCP), as illustrated in the scene where Biko gives a well-received speech at the illegal gathering for the Black People’s Convention (BPC) (Clark and Worger xx). It is only through Woods that the audience finds out that SASO gathered support from students fed up with the apartheid rule law-abiding National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). For his dedicated advocacy work, Biko is banned in 1973 as an attempt to silence and isolate him from his community. Frantz Fanon’s chapter, â€Å"Concerning violence† in The Wretched of the Earth (1961), speaks to the disappearance of individualism under colonial rule. Fanon indicates that the â€Å"colonialist bourgeoisie† thrusts the ideology upon the â€Å"native

Remaking Birmingham free essay sample

This essay focuses on the subjects of urban regeneration and sustainability in the I-JK. I shall start by exploring the true meanings of the two subjects and how they are connected with one another. The I-JK has many urban regeneration projects happening all the time and I have chosen to focus on the city of Birmingham and the Big City Plan. I am going to delve into the processes, objectives and outcomes of the project and come to my own conclusion as to whether urban regeneration in Birmingham is done in a sustainable way. Cities cover Just 2% of the worlds landmass, but more than 60% of the worlds opulation inhabit them, therefore urban regeneration is a massive global issue that needs to be fully understood and considered. What is urban regeneration? In short, urban regeneration is a combination of the processes that are undertaken in order to rejuvenate, and renew an urban place. One definition of urban regeneration is, a comprehensive and integrated vision and action which leads to the resolution of urban problems and which seeks to bring a lasting improvement in the economic, physical, social and environmental conditions of an area that has been subject to change. (Roberts 2000, p. 17) This definition of urban regeneration is one that is very widely understood. It means that when urban regeneration is done well it will bring change to many aspects of a town or city, from the economic to the environmental. In the I-JK, cities are hugely important for the economic function of the country and if the cities are not prosperous then the country will not have the best economy it can. Therefore urban regeneration is a tremendously important matter. There are many types of urban regeneration, five main ones that we focus on in the I-JK. First there is economic regeneration, which focuses on the income of the city, Job creation and employment for the residents of a given urban area and the employability of the residents themselves. Secondly there is social cultural regeneration. This type of urban regeneration is aimed at improving the quality of life for the residents of the area, bettering the quality of the housing, education and health services and also reducing the crime rate in an area. Another type of regeneration is physical environmental, which is concentrated on improving the natural and built environment of an urban area. Higher quality infrastructure and more green spaces are the aims of physical environmental urban regeneration. Fourthly there is communication regeneration and this is dedicated to improving the transport links within a town or city, which will in time have an impact on the other aspects of urban regeneration as well. The final main type of urban regeneration is governance, which is not an immediate topic when discussing urban regeneration. Governance is the way a settlement is run by the local council, the decisions they make and what impact they have on the town or city. If all of these main elements of urban regeneration are achieved, then the city will be completely revitalized. The residents will have an improved quality of life, new employment opportunities, and community participation would be available for people to enrich their lives. the UK sustainabili ty is a central topic, especially when linked witn urban regeneration. Sustainability is defined as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987). Sustainability considers climate hange, energy consumption, land use and transport to name Just a few, how they affect the environment and the carbon footprint they create. Although cities are a danger to the natural environment, they play a hugely important role in the economic climate of the I-JK, which is why sustainability is such a central concept. What is a sustainable city? A question that many city planners ask themse lves when it comes to sustainable urban regeneration. A sustainable city is one that fills all of the requirements of both the economic climate and the residents without damaging the nvironment. It would be an attractive place to be and green spaces for nature and recreation would be actively integrated into the city environment. A good quality transport system that positively promotes pedestrian areas and cycling which, in time would lead to low pollution and noise levels, and local food consumption would all contribute to the sustainable city goal. Another element of a sustainable city that people are inclined to overlook is an efficient waste disposal system. If the waste is disposed of correctly and efficiently then the city would have a much more esthetically pleasing feel to it and the general manner of the people living and working in the settlement would be happier. Sustainable urban design is another element of an overall sustainable city. Design that considers all of the needs of the people using the space, makes good use of the local resources available, and makes the most of the natural ventilation and lighting opportunities, would be an efficient and sustainable building with long-term livability. Has the designer used renewable energy resources? Are the living and working spaces combined? What are the noise pollution levels? These are all uestions that we should be asking ourselves as designers when it comes to sustainable urban regeneration, and we must consider whether value for money is delivered at a small cost of design and construction. Birmingham is one of the biggest cities in the UK and has one of the youngest populations in Europe with 37% of the residents less than 24 years of age. It also has a hugely ethnic diverse population, the city winning the city of culture title in 2010. All of these factors have to be considered when talking about urban regeneration in Birmingham. Over the last decade the city has reinvented itself using the theme of new urbanism, to become a city that attracts tourism and investment from all over the globe. One of the major attractions of Birmingham today, the Bullring shopping centre, was the first indoor city shopping centre to be built in the I-JK. The Big City Plan is a 20 year, master plan that aims to develop Birmingham city centre into a world class place that will attract tourism and business from all over the world. The plan contemplates all aspects of the built environment of Birmingham, trom transport to heritage and hopes to create new residential and employment opportunities encouraging the diverse culture of the city. Some specific aims of the plan are, to generate over 50000 new employment opportunities, which will hopefully contribute E2. 1 billion to the economy of the city each year. The plan has the aim of developing a city centre that is focused on pedestrianism and cycling which will have a very positive effect on the carbon footprint of the city and noise pollution levels will drop. The plan also has the objective of redeveloping and creating 65000 square metres of public space, from parks and walkways to leisure parks. This type of revitalization will enhance the lives of the residents in the city of Birmingham itself. Over 5000 new homes are to be built in Birmingham that will have leisure and recreation opportunities close by, so as to attract more people to a better quality of life. Another specific aim of the master plan is to retain Birminghams heritage and cultural assets, an authentic city, of which Birmingham has many. The Black Country Museum for example, is a place where people can gain a historical, cultural experience of Birmingham. A high-speed rail network is to be implemented, creating a connected city, which will enable more people to work in the city centre as ommuting becomes easier, enhancing the economic climate of the city. Birmingham is a very educational city, home to over 4 universities and various colleges, and a technology and engineering quarter is to be developed as a result of the regeneration. As a whole, the Big City Plan is the most aspiring urban regeneration project to ever be established in the I-JK. As a case study I am focusing in on the area of Eastside in the heart of Birmingham city centre. It is a very run down, neglected area that is not attractive and at the present day, has almost no redeeming qualities. The Eastside area will be the location of the single largest environmental regeneration project in the city. Billions of pounds have been invested into the project for this area by investors, organizations and businesses from the local surrounding area to all over the globe. When finished, the regeneration in Eastside will have created new businesses, new jobs, enhanced the cultural experience of the place, the leisure and educational services will be vastly improved, and the residential opportunities will be improved beyond belief. The area is planned to be exclusively, the technology and learning uarter, giving it a specific quality and objective. Eastside City Park which, is yet to be built, will be when finished, the first and largest city centre park in Birmingham in over 30 years. The high speed rail network that is to be established within the city centre is to have two terminals in the Eastside area, meaning that the area will be incredibly accessible for all, bringing employment opportunities and tourism which will overall boost the economic growth of not only that specific area of Eastside but the whole city itself. The Big City Plan has a detailed section about sustainability, nd how it plans to make sure that Birmingham will become a sustainable city for the future. For example, by 2026 the city hopes to have reduced its carbon footprint by 60%. The city centre particularly, has a large part to play in aiding the achievement of reaching this goal. Birmingham hopes to reduce its reliance on non-renewable energy resources and instead build up a way of generating low-carbon energy. The local government want to focus in on the conversion and re-use of existing buildings so not as to generate more carbon emissions through building more buildings and nocking down existing ones. They also want to make the existing, functioning buildings greener by installing sustainable energy generation methods such as solar panels on roofs. Allowing the public opportunities to have their own small allotments will enable people to grow their own produce, therefore reducing the need for importing goods. These goals are not unrealistic, the city is actually in relatively a good position to reach these goals and become a truly sustainable city. When the plan is finished in 2020, a sustainable, efficient city should be the outcome. The pedestrians and cyclists will have a much higher priority over other transport methods, which will vastly improve the aesthetics of the city centre, hence improving the quality of the living and working conditions for the residents. Noise pollution will also be dramatically decreased as a result of less motor vehicles in the city centre, which will create a calmer atmosphere, leading to the promotion a certain way of life in which people would take the time to use the citys new parks to relax and do recreational activities, enhancing their quality of life even further. Another result that he government hopes to achieve is that people will be able to charge their electric vehicles in the city centre at various points. This will actively promote low emission transport and reduce carbon emissions for the city. This would be a dramatic contrast to the selection of vehicles in the city today, 95% of which are all petrol or diesel engines with high emission levels. Alterations that are to be made to the road network are going to make the roads in the city centre flow much more smoothly and reduce congestion, resulting in lower noise pollution, a lower carbon footprint and a uch more aesthetically pleasing place to be. Is urban regeneration in Birmingham done in a sustainable way, and are the future plans for urban regeneration going to create a sustainable city? I have come to the conclusion that urban regeneration in Birmingham is done in a very sustainable way. The citys authorities have developed a specific plan and method by which they will develop the city centre into an exciting, green place to be. They have considered all areas of urban generation, which I have delved into, and if completed to the standard promised, will generate a hugely efficient and sustainable city for the future.

Thursday, April 23, 2020

The Montréal Fine Arts Museum Essay Example For Students

The Montrà ©al Fine Arts Museum Essay The Montrà ©al Fine Arts Museum (MFAM) is a non-profit organization that was founded nearly 25 years ago by the Monet brothers, who devoted their entire lives to promoting art. For the past five years, the MFAM has grown nicely due to its Curator’s talent for putting on exhibitions that the public finds very interesting. As a result of the budget cuts announced by the government this year, grants for the arts were down considerably. The cut is even more significant for private organizations that, like the MFAM, have to raise 65% of their financing requirements through ticket sales in order to be eligible for a grant program. The Chairman is very happy to announce some excellent news. As of April 1st, the London Museum will lend to MFAM, free of charge and for a period of nine months, its entire dinosaur and prehistoric art collection. This is extremely good news because it will attract the public and generate some much needed cash flow. We will write a custom essay on The Montrà ©al Fine Arts Museum specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now It is now February 26 and the Chairman of the Board of Governors, Mr. Monet, has just asked you, CA, the newly hired Controller, for your opinion on various matters concerning the Museum. There are some concerns about the administration of the MFAM. A fraud was recently discovered involving a purchased painting that was found not to be authentic. This could have a serious impact on the Museum’s reputation and could cause the London Museum to refuse to lend its collection to the MFAM. You meet with a few different people to obtain an understanding of how the museum operates (Exhibit I). In light of this fraud, Mr. Monet wants you to recommend controls that should be implemented as well as suggesting means for ensuring they are followed. These recommendations will be executed by yourself and Mr. James, a member of the Board of Governors who is also the Controller of a company in the area. The Board of Governors also wants you to raise to their attention any other significant control and operating weaknesses in the management of the Museum. Furthermore, the MFAM announced publicly that on April 1st it will be launching a new website. The site will allow users to learn more about the permanent collection and current exhibitions as well as allow the public to make donations to the museum online. The Board of Governors has received a proposal from the potential supplier, WebStirs, (Exhibit II) and would like your opinion on it. Finally, The Board of Governors is aware that the public is still reluctant to use the internet for donations and would like you to recommend measures to be taken to reassure potential donors and encourage them to use this advanced technology.

Tuesday, March 17, 2020

Mystical Caves Used Throughout Mythology Essays - God, Free Essays

Mystical Caves Used Throughout Mythology Essays - God, Free Essays Mystical Caves Used Throughout Mythology The use of caves in mythology to depict darkness and abandonment has branded it as a symbol of chaos. From this perception other associations are made which connect the cave to prejudices, malevolent spirits, burial sites, sadness, resurrection and intimacy. It is a world to which only few venture, and yet its mysticism has attracted the interest of philosophers, religious figures and thinkers throughout history. These myths are exemplified in Homers "Odyssey," where the two worlds of mortals and immortals unite in the eternal cave. To Plato, the cave represents the confusion between reality and falsehood. Individuals chained deep within the recesses of the cave mistake their shadows for physical existence. These false perceptions, and the escape from bonds held within the cave symbolize transition into the a world of reality. Comparatively, in the Odyssey, Odysseus must first break with Kalypso, and set himself free before he can return to Ithaka, when he will then be prepared to release Penelope from the bondage of suitors. His experience within the cave is in itself a world of fantasy, in that Kalypso is a supernatural being, and the only way to escape her enslavement is to receive assistance from immortals superior to her. The philosopher Francis Bacon also theorized about the myth attached to caves in which he maintained that "idols," meaning prejudices and preconceived notions possessed by an individual, were contained in a persons "cave," or obscure, compartment, with "intricate and winding chambers"1 . Beliefs that caves were inhabited by negative thoughts, or spirits, were also held by the native-American culture, in which these spirits influenced the outcome of all human strivings, and had to be maintained inside caves. The souls of the dead were thought to be the most malevolent of all spirits, and were held within the deepest parts of the cave. In Greek mythology this also holds true, according the legend in which Cronus was placed in a cave in the deepest part of the underworld. This was done by Zeus and his siblings after waging war against their father for swallowing them at birth for fear that they might overthrow him. Incidently, Zeus was raised in a cave after Rhea hid him from Cronus. For his punishment, Cronus was placed in Tartarus to prevent his return to earth, which would unbalance the system of authority established by Zeus. Beyond the shadows of the cave, however, this balanced system of power is nonexistent. It becomes a system both unstable and lawless, and survival as a guest in such a cave is only accomplished through the complete submission to the sovereign. In Odysseus encounter with the Cyclops, it is his disregard for Polyphemos authority that costs him the lives of several companions, and ultimately a ten year delay on his return home. The land of the Cyclops epitomizes darkness, chaos, and abandonment; where the only law exists past the entrance of the cave. From the islands shore a "high wall of...boulders"2 can be seen encircling each cave. Clearly impossible of being accomplished by mortals, massive walls of similar description found standing after the Persian Wars were also thought by ancient Greeks to be the work of the Cyclops. Unfamiliar to this system of power, Odysseus disregards these laws and enters the cave without an invitation. For this reason, Polyphemos implicates his own punishment onto the trespassers, and kills six men. In order to escape the wrath of the Cyclops, Odysseus eventually blinds him, an offense which falls under the jurisdiction of Poseidon, and for which he ultimately pays throughout his wanderings. The uncontrollable winds next direct Odysseus through a narrow strait outlined by rocks and cliffs through which he must pass to return home. On these cliffs which stand opposite each other lurk Scylla and Charybdis, one side "reach[ing] up into...heaven"3 and the other not quite as high. Scylla, a creature with twelve feet and six necks, resides in a cave upon this high cliff and devours sailors from fleeting ships. Across the stream of water dwells Charybdis, a dreadful whirlpool beneath a fig tree. Three times daily the maelstrom forms, and shipwrecks passing vessels. In the "Odyssey," Odysseus and his crew encounter these two sea

Sunday, March 1, 2020

17 SAT Hacks to Help You Ace the Exam

17 SAT Hacks to Help You Ace the Exam SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Standardized tests have a reputation for presenting questions in formats that are tricky and confusing. Wouldn't it be great if there was a way to get past all that and take a shortcut to the correct answer? This article provides expert SAT hacks to help you solve SAT questions that might otherwise leave you stumped! Can You Actually â€Å"Hack† the SAT? Well, yes and no. Quick tidbits of advice like the ones in this articlecan prevent you from squandering your potential and teach you how to work with the test to earn the best score possible. However, you can’t rely on shortcuts to arrive at an excellent score if you’re missing knowledge that is critical for understanding essential aspects of the test. Be warned that these SAT hacks, though helpful,are no substitute for in-depth studying, especially if you struggle with the content at a fundamental level.If you think you need prep that addresses deeper weaknesses, you should check out our complete guide on how to study for the SAT. Overall SAT Hacks Here are some tricks you can use on any part of the SAT to help you get through the section and earn the most points possible. #1: Answer Every Question (No Matter What) The SAT doesn’t have a guessing penalty, so you should fill in an answer bubble for every question even if you have no clue what the correct response is.If you find yourself with a few questions left in the section and only 30 seconds on the clock, you should provide random answers for all of them.You never know if you’ll get lucky and answer one or two correctly, and even if you don’t, your score won’t be any lower than if you had left the questions blank. #2: Be Prepared for the Format Knowing what to expect is half the battle on the SAT.When you sit down to take the test, you want everything to look familiar so you can avoid mistakes triggered by stress. At the very least, you shouldreview the timing and structure of the exambefore test day.Taking practice tests with appropriate time constraints is the best thing you can do to alleviate confusion on this front. #3: Don’t Linger on Hard Questions Getting stuck on one question for too long can do serious damage to your performance on the SAT, especially considering the fact that there are only four sections.If you have no idea how to solve a math problem or can’t seem to settle on one choice for a writing or reading question, skip it and move on.You can come back to it after you make it through the rest of the section. #4: Practice Managing Anxiety Especially if you’re hoping to earn a really high score, coming across a problem that stumps you can kill your momentum on the test.To avoid this pitfall, you need to establish coping mechanisms to deal with these moments of doubt without letting them affect your overall performance. Mindfulness techniques are a great tool to have in your arsenal. Check out this article for more tips on how to reduce test anxiety! Imagine you're not taking the SAT. Instead, you're floating on a serene lake under a beautiful blue sky. You still have to stay awake, though. Seriously, don't fall asleep. SAT Reading Hacks Here are a few more SAT hacks that are specific to the content and format of the SAT Reading section. #5: Plan a Passage Reading Strategy Don’t jump into the test without deciding how you plan to approach passages on the Reading section.Are you more comfortable with skimming, or do you like to read the questions first and then go back and reference the passage to locate the answers? Complete apractice Reading section with appropriate time constraints so you can figure out what feels most comfortable for you and makes for the fewest struggles with time management. #6: Take Advantage of Find the Evidence Questions Find the evidence questions on the SAT are a gift because they help make the correct answers to the previous questions clearer.If none of the answer choices for a find the evidence question make sense in conjunction with your answer to the previous question, this should prompt you to double-check your reasoning.These questions remind you that you need to choose answers to Reading questions based on concrete statements made in the passage.If you made any unfounded assumptions, find the evidence questions will alert you to your mistakes. #7: Engage With the Content It’s much easier to get through the Reading section if you develop an interest in what the passages have to say.You’ll also retain more information from the passage when you move onto the questions. To get yourself interested, envision a scenario in which it's absolutely critical for you to remember what the passage says so you can explain it to other people. Imagine that you'll be presenting the information in the passage to another group of students after you finish reading it. "Notice anything different about me? Teehee" Denise, I accept that love is love, but you just met the SAT Reading section a week ago. YOU'VE BEEN HURT TOO MANY TIMES. SAT Writing Hacks These hacks will give you some insight into the way Writing questions work and how you can answer them more efficiently. #8: When in Doubt, Choose the Most Concise Answer The shortest answer is often the best answer on the Writing section because good writing consists of saying what needs to be said without any unnecessary fluff.Super wordy answers are usually not the ones you want.Of course, this doesn’t hold true for every single question, but it’s a solid rule of thumb if you’re stuck. #9: NO CHANGE Answers Are Just Like Other Choices Often, NO CHANGE answers are wrongfully viewed as more likely or less likely options than other answer choices in the Writing section. In fact, they’re just as likely to be correct as any of the alternative options. Don’t be afraid to pick NO CHANGE if you’ve double checked your reasoning and determined that it’s the correct choice. #10: Get Rid of Duplicate Answers Sometimes, questions on the Writing section will have answer choices that are so similar to one another that choosing one over the other wouldn’t make any functional difference in the sentence structure. Thismeans you can get rid of two choices in one fell swoop.If they’re essentially the same answers, then neither of them is unique enough to be the correct choice.Here's an example: In this case, C and D are functionally the same answers. They both indicate that the author is about to make a statement that goes against what was said in the previous sentence or sentences. Both C and D can be eliminated (the answer is NO CHANGE for this question). Sometimes answer options are just two halves of the same bad berry. This strawberry actually looks really good though. SAT Math Hacks The SAT has two Math sections, one taken without the use of a calculator and one taken with the use of a calculator.On both of these sections, you can use the following SAT hacksto improve your performance. #: Don’t Ignore Diagrams In many cases, the test will provide a diagram to help illustrate a math problem.These diagrams exist for your benefit, so make sure you pay attention to all the information they give you.Does your answer mesh with the way the diagram looks?If you’re asked to find a dimension of a shape, make sure the relative sizes make sense. Your final answer shouldn’t seem out of whack with what the diagram is telling you. #12: Know the Formulas Although the SAT does provide important formulas at the beginning of each of the Math sections, you’ll be a much more efficient test-taker if you have the formulas memorized.It's a waste of time to keep flipping back to the beginning of the section whenever you think you need a formula to solve a problem. For studying purposes, here'sa list of all the formulas you might need for the SAT Math section. #13: Underline Your Goal To keep yourself on track in the Math section, underline the value that you need to find (and circle it in the diagram if applicable).It's frustrating to confidently solve a math problem and later realize that you had to take your calculations one step further to actually get the answer the question wanted. In many cases, the wrong answers will be answers that you might get if you didn’t complete the solution process or solved for the incorrect quantity. #14: Plug in Answers If you have no idea how to solve a math problem, one way to get around that is just toplug in the answer choicesuntil you find the correct solution.This oftentakes longer than solving aproblem with algebra, but if you have time, it can be a useful strategy. Plugs, not drugs. This is probably a t-shirt by now, right? SAT Essay Hacks The essay is optional on the SAT, but many colleges still require it. Hereare some ways you can improve the quality of your essay with minimal effort. #15: Provide a Clear Thesis The essay graders are looking for an easy way to interpret your essay and understand the points you’re making.The best way to tap into this is to write a strong thesis that falls at the end of the introductory paragraph.Reread the central claim of the passage that’s described in the prompt, and transpose it into your thesis statement. Make sure you sketch out the structure of your essay in your thesis by listing three examples of major techniques the author uses to support his or her argument. #16: Write a Good Intro and Conclusion The introductory and concluding paragraphs are extremely important because graders typically pay the most attention to these parts of your essay.The introduction gives graders a preview of the quality of the rest of the essay and the way you’ll structure your ideas.It also contains your thesis, which is the most critical sentence in the entire essay and is what ties all of your points together. #17: Write More Than One Page Try to make your essay around two pages long.The graders don’t have a specific quota for the number of words they want to see, but they expect you to provide a response that fully addresses the most important components of the author’s argument.It’s almost impossible to do this if your response only takes up one page.Consider whether you’ve really explained what’s going on in the passage, and if necessary add more evidence to make your essay complete. Also, make sure your writing is legible. If you bring a quill to the test, expect some backlash. Conclusion: How to Hack the SAT "Hacking" the SAT is possible to an extent, but you need to understand the content fairly well before you can employ most of these tips successfully. To recap, here's a list of all the SAT hacks listed in the article organized by section: Overall Answer every question Be prepared for the format Don't linger on hard questions Learn to manage anxiety Reading Develop a passage reading strategy Use find the evidence questions to your advantage Engage with the content Writing Choose the most concise answer Remember that NO CHANGE answers are no more or less common than other options Eliminate duplicate answer options Math Don't ignore the diagrams Underline your goal Know the formulas Plug in answer options Essay Provide a clear thesis Write a strong introduction and conclusion Write at least two pages If you follow all these pieces of advice and combine them with in-depth studying, you'll be well on your way to an awesome score on the SAT! What's Next? If you think you need more structured guidance in your studying for the SAT, check out our list of the best prep books released this year. Khan Academy now provides free SAT prep services. Learn more abouthow it works and how to get the most out of these resources. There are also other ways to practice for the SAT online that you may not know about. Read all about the best websites to use for SAT prep! Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points? Check out our best-in-class online SAT prep classes. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your SAT score by 160 points or more. Our classes are entirely online, and they're taught by SAT experts. If you liked this article, you'll love our classes. Along with expert-led classes, you'll get personalized homework with thousands of practice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step, custom program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Try it risk-free today:

Thursday, February 13, 2020

Museums are catalysts for regeneration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Museums are catalysts for regeneration - Essay Example They are able to connect the past with the present, serve as reminders of a historic past, and provide a link between the old generation and the new one. They enable people to explore collections for inspiration, enjoyment, and learning. Investing in cultural projects such as museums has been the task of tourism, which is both indispensable and necessary. Likewise, urban development strategy has been the investment in cultural projects such as iconic museums and arts centers intended to enhance city image alongside catalyzing private sector participation and attracting tourists (Grodach 2008). Museums possess educational and cultural mandates, which are being transformed as institutions continuously play an increasingly important part in economic development and tourism promotion strategies (Tufts and Milne 1999). Museums are concerned with not only its traditional public mandate, but also with its ability to enhance consumption experiences while contributing to a diversified tourism product. The museum as a catalyst for cultural landscape regeneration is seen in its expansion in variety as well as explosion in popularity over the last decades, in which marked change in its role in society is significantly observed (Falk and Dierking 2002). In the past, the museum was oriented primarily towards research and collection. Today, it is increasingly viewed as an institution for public learning and has placed an emphasis on education – a task that it never did in the past (Falk and Dierking 2002). The issue of educating the public did not arise in the past and visits then were conducted privately. It must also be noted that, museums used to be for public collections alone, shared with others selectively by the curator. Although for many, the museum remains to hold a secondary function, it was observed that over time, its role as a public asset has become increasingly important (Falk and Dierking 2002). A quarter of century ago, most

Saturday, February 1, 2020

The Negative Causes, effects and sides of Onechild law in China Research Paper

The Negative Causes, effects and sides of Onechild law in China - Research Paper Example cts Negative Population Implications Negative Economic Effects ‘Little emperor syndrome’ – kids spoilt, lack social skills Increased pressure on kids to get good qualifications, well paid jobs, provide for parents in old age Human rights issues and abuses – shouldn’t everyone have the right to have as many kids as they want? Also looking at abuses, e.g. forced sterilisation, abortions, Imbalanced gender ratio = 119.2 boys for every 100 girls – due to abortions of girl pregnancies, abandoning girl babies. Also created ‘bride shortage’ with 10% more men in population than women Current fertility decline now stands at 1.47, below replacement fertility level of 2.1 kids Rapid aging population; Currently 10.5% of population over 65 (was 7.6% 2 decades ago) Set to grow to 15% in 2015, 20% by 2025 and 35% by 2050 4-2-1 problem of supporting elderly relatives – financial problems 1.34 billion Yuan in 1990 spent on government alloca tion for birth control programmes, grew to 4.82billion Yuan by 1998, still increasing now Rural consequences of only having 1 kid - loss of income on farm, labour needed to work on farm/ in agriculture Process Style Outline Negative Effects of China’s One Child Policy Social Effects ‘little emperor syndrome’ Over reliance on children from one child families Human rights violations Effects on China’s Population Structure Gender imbalance ratio – fewer girls – boys valued more, baby girl infant mortality Fertility levels fallen below replacement levels Rapidly aging population Economic Effects Family cost/consequence of only having one child State financial and political costs of administering policy Rural populations – need more kids to help out on farm, agriculture, etc Key Underline Thesis Statement Three decades after its implementation, there is a growing concern amongst researchers and citizens that China’s One Child Policy is having negative effects on Chinese society, its economy and future population trends. It is the aim of this report to discuss the consequences of such an unprecedented policy. ‘China’s One Child Policy was introduced in 1979 by the People’s Republic of China’ (Rosenberg, 2011). It was initially designed as a temporary measure to slow population growth at the start of the Chinese economic reforms (Feng, 2005). This was because China’s population had almost doubled from 563 million in 1950, to one billion by 1980 (Rosenberg, 2010). The policy has resulted in 90% of urban and 60% of rural children having no siblings (Chen, 2000) and China now has one of the lowest fertility rates (1.47 children per couple) in the world (Feng, 2005). According to Li et al (2005), ‘China’s One Child Policy is the largest and most extreme social experiment in population growth control via government intervention in human reproduction history’. Howev er, three decades after its implementation, there is a growing concern amongst researchers and citizens as to the negative effects such a policy has had on Chinese society, its economy and future population structure. It is the aim of this report to discuss the consequences of such an unprecedented policy. There are many negative consequences of China’s One Child Policy relating to the social structure of Chinese society. Chen (2000) believes that ‘

Friday, January 24, 2020

Hazard Mitigation Planning Essay -- Natural Disasters

Executive summary Hazard mitigation planning is an approach aimed at ascertaining ways to reduce the effects, deaths and damage to property that might result in the occurrence of a natural of man-made hazard. Hurricanes are among the costliest and the most destructive of natural disasters. Since 1995, the United States has witnessed more intense activities by hurricanes with Mobile County in Alabama experiencing hurricane Ivan and hurricane Dennis in 2004 and 2005 (Link, 2010). In 2005, Hurricane Katrina was the costliest and one of the deadliest hurricanes to have hit the United States and was rated category three in Mobile County (Marchi, 2007). The response to the disaster was poor owing to the lack of proper disaster preparedness as well as hazard mitigation planning. The very possibility of a hurricane hitting Alabama in the near future-within which the County of Mobile is located- appears as a near certainty going by past occurrences. The authorities as well as the community in Mobile County need to be more prepared for disasters by instituting hazard mitigation measures. These measures should be actualized through an effort by the County authorities in conjunction with the major s takeholders to put together a team that will comprehensively analyze hurricane Katrina and other past hurricanes affecting Mobile County. The Hurricane mitigation plan for the city of Mobile sets out the available resources and important information that would assist the community in reducingthe effects of a hurricane that might occur in future. The plan concentrates on measures and actions that can be put in place to reduce the effects of a hurricane. It covers an assessment of risk, sets out a strategy for minimizing the effects, and present... ... Hurricane Katrina and New Orleans. Ocean Engineering, 37(1), 4-12. Marchi, B. D. (2007). Not Just a matter of Knowledge: The Katrina Debacle. Environmental Hazards, 7(2), 141-149. Rodiek J. (2007). Landscape Planning in Hazardous Zones, Lessons from Hurricane Katrina, August 2005. Landscape and Urban Planning, 79(1), 1-4. Sadowski N. & Sutter D. (2008). Mitigation Motivated by Past Experience: Prior Hurricanes and Damages. Ocean and Coastal Management, 51(4), 303-313. Waugh, W. (2006). Shelter from the Storm: Repairing the National Emergency Management System after Hurricane Katrina. Michigan City: SAGE Publications. Yarnal B. (2007). Vulnerability and all that Jazz: Addressing Vulnerability in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina. Technology in Society, 29(2), 249-255. Forren J. (2005). Hurricane Katrina. Journal of Peri Anesthesia Nursing, 20(5), 303-304.

Thursday, January 16, 2020

Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate Essay

Introduction One of the most important theoretical constructs in public administration is the politics-administration dichotomy. For more than a century, the politicsadministration dichotomy has been one of the most disreputable Issues in the field of public administration. The politics-administration dichotomy has had a strange history in public administration. It expands and contracts, rises and falls, but never to go away (Svara & Overeem, 2006: 121).At the heart of the public administration is relationship between administrators, on one hand, and politicians and the public on the other hand. The nature of that relationship and the proper role of political leaders and administrators in the administrative and political process have been the subject of considerable debate. In importance of the politics and administration, Waldo (1987) wrote: Nothing is more central in thinking about public administration than the nature and interrelations of politics and administration. Nor are the nature and interrelations of politics and administration matters only for academic theorizing. What is more important in the day-today, year-to-year, decade-to-decade operation of government than the ways in which politics and administration are conceptualized, rationalized ,and related one to the other. 1 2 PH.D student of public administration, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran. PH.D student of public administration, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran. 130 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate In this article we review history of the politics-administration dichotomy in five section. First, we examine classical conceptualizations of relationship between politics and administration in early author’s notes such as Wilson, Goodnow and Weber. We then argue that how the dichotomy model rise after founders by the scientific management and the principles of administration Movements. Then, we describe relationship between politics and administration after scientific management that in this time the politics-administration dichotomy rejected and emphasized on administrators policymaking role, specially under the New public administration (NPA).In next section we contend that how in 80 and 90 decades insisted on separation of policy and administration by the New Public Management (NPM) and the Reinventing Government (RG) Movements. In final section, we review new trends and views on debate that introduce the complementarily model of politics and administration. 1. Early views about the politics and administration relationship: Wilson, Goodnow and Weber Although the politics-administration dichotomy was not current as a theoretical construct until the late 1940s when it first became an important issue in the literature of public administration, most scholars now trace it to Woodrow Wilson. Wilson’s essay (1887) with title of â€Å"The Study of Administration† was not cited for many years after publication, but it is an exemplar of an stream of reformist thinking about government in the late nineteenth century. Wilson intended to shield administration from political interference, He wrote: The field of administration is a field of business. It is removed from the hurry and strife of politics†¦. Administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics. Administrative questions are not political questions. Although politics sets the tasks for administration, it should not be suffered to manipulate its offices (Wilson, 1887: 18). Wilson was concerned with both the corrupting and politicizing interference of party organizations in administrative affairs (Stillman, 1973). He was critical of the way Congress handled core legislative functions. He stated that Congress policy making was haphazard and its oversight was weak. When Wilson suggested the clearer differentiation of politics and administration, he was seeking to strengthen and redirect the former while protecting the latter (Svara, 1998: 52). In The Study of Administration, Wilson explained the division of functions of Government as follows: Public administration is detailed and systematic execution of public law†¦but the general laws†¦are obviously outside of and above administration. The broad plans of governmental action are not administrative; the detailed execution of such plans is administrative (Wilson, 1966: 372). ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 131 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate However, Wilson originally considered politics and administration as independent, but later embraced version of the dichotomy, which assumed that politics and administration interact to improve the organic state (Martin, 1988).In this time Wilson asserted that administrators would directly interpret and respond to public opinion. Therefore, they should be involved in the policy process and elected officials should be involved in the administrative process (Wilson, 1966: 375). Wilson’s change of mind can be explained that On the one hand, He admired the administration of European countries and proposed learning from them, which would not have been possible unless administration was distinctly separate from politics. On the other hand, his ultimate concern was to promote democracy, for he believed that the function of administration was to rescue democracy from its own excesses (Yang & Holzer, 2005: 113-4). Miewald (1984: 25-6) contend that this view of administrators was even clearer in Wilson’s later lectures that stated the real function of administration is not merely ministerial, but adaptive, guiding, discretionary. It must accommodate and realize the law in practice. In Miewald’s view, such administrators also were politicians and they must have the freedom to make ethical decisions. Van Riper (1984: 209) asserted that Wilson can not be blame or give credit for originating the dichotomy. In his view, Wilson like some of his contemporaries, simply wanted to advance the partisan (not political) neutrality of the civil service. Svara (1998: 52) argue that Wilson’s view of the administrative function was broad and not consistent with the dichotomy model as it came to be articulated later. He refer to this Wilson’s note that large powers and unhampered discretion seem to me the indispensable conditions of responsibility for administrators. The European version of the dichotomy was accepted by Frank Goodnow. In his book â€Å"Politics and Administration† (1900), Goodnow attacked to the executive, legislative, and judicial functions as three basic functions of government. Instead, he argued, there were two basic functions of government: the expression of the popular will and the execution of that will. The three traditional powers were derived from the two functions, and each of the three branches of government combined in different measure both the expression and the execution of the popular will. Goodnow argued that the function of politics was to express the state’s will and the function of administration was to execute the state’s will. He contented that it was analytically possible to separate administration from politics, but practically impossible toad the two functions to one branch of government (Goodnow, 1900: 9-13). Goodnow argued that certain aspects of administration were harmed by politics and should have been shielded from it. He argued: â€Å"political control over administrative functions is liable†¦to produce inefficient administration in that it makes administrative officers feel that what is demanded of them is not so much work that will improve their own department, as compliance with the behests of the political party† (Goodnow, 1900: 83). 132 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate Svara (1998: 53) believed that in Goodnow’s writing there is a continuity between the political and administrative spheres, not a separation of the two, except as it applies to insulating administrative staff from partisan political inference. Because of Goodnow and other scholars at this time were interested in strengthening the relationship between administrators and elected officials rather than separating them. In sum, It should be recognized that Wilson and Goodnow aimed to eliminate the spoils system by freeing administration from political intervention and establishing a merit system in its place. They particularly opposed political appointments and patronage (Caiden, 1984: 53-7; Fry, 1989: 1036; Rohr, 2003: xiii-xvii; Rosenbloom, 2008: 58). They were more concerned with the improvement of administrative practice than with establishing a theoretical Construct (Stillman, 1973: 586). In other word, the dichotomy was not merely an analytical device for them, but first of all a practical imperative. To Wilson and Goodnow politics bore too strong an influence on public administration. Their’s aim was to take politics out of administration (Fry,  1989: 1036-7). In early twentieth century, Weber also arrived to a dichotomy between politics and administration, but from the opposite direction of Wilson and Goodnow. Weber argued that politics are too weak to curb administrative power, and that is the danger of Beamtenherrschaft (government by functionaries) that treat government. Therefore, he insisted that it was essential that administration stay out of politics (Weber, 1919/1968: 28). In â€Å"Politikals Beruf† Weber draws a sharp line between administrators and politicians: According to his proper vocation, the genuine civil servant†¦should not engage in politics, but administer, above all impartially†¦. Hence, he shall precisely not do what the politician, the leader as well as his following, must always and necessarily do, namely, fight. For partisanship, fight, passion are stadium are the politician’s element. (Weber, 1919/1968: 27-8) According to Weber, in the political controversies public administrators should operate above all impartially and remain politically neutral. In sum, It should be said that in founder’ s views it was partisan politics they wanted to keep apart from public administration rather than politics per se (Van Riper, 1984: 209; Ranney, 1949). Overeem (2005: 317) contended that in it’s classical conceptualizations the dichotomy between politics and administration implied a deep concern about the political neutrality of administrators. Whether attempts were made to take politics out of administration, as in the case of Wilson and Goodnow, or the other way around, as in the case of Weber, the aim was always to render administration impartial, an outsider to political controversy. ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 133 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate 2. Toward the dichotomy: raise of the politics-administration dichotomy concept after founders  Yang and Holzer (2005: 114) believed that in deciphering Wilson and Goodnow, practitioners and academicians incorporated their own beliefs and reconstructed (or distorted) the two authors’ intentions. This misreading, they argued, is no surprise because in light of the Progressive context Openness to the separation of administration from politics was necessary if public administration was to emerge as an autonomous field, an urgent and legitimate attitude at a time when politics perversely intruded into administration, as exemplified by the spoils system. There is agreement that the idea of separation between politics and administration (Dichotomy) diverged from the earlier approaches by Wilson and Goodnow. Van Riper (1984: 209) argue that Wilson and Goodnow’s ideas do not correspond to a dichotomy. Waldo (1948: 108), Appleby (1949: 16), Golembiewski (1977: 9), and Caiden (1984: 60) also have same views. Rabin and Bowman (1984: 4) content that the distinction between politics and administration identified by Wilson and Goodnow had been converted by thirties authors into a dichotomy. Martin demonstrates the thinking of the thirties as follows: In the atmosphere provided by scientific management, a mechanistic concept of public administration came to prevail widely and in important circles. Administration was separated severely from the legislative body†¦. Politics was anathema-not the politics practiced by administrators, but the politics of the politicians (1952: 667). According to Caiden (1984: 60-1), in the thirties, there was a narrower conception of administration as being the management of organizations without regard to purpose, persons, or objectives, that is a generic science of management. Because of the purpose and methods of the two spheres were different, not only could administration be taken out of politics, but politics could be taken out of administration. Thus, the dichotomy model and the scientific practice of administration became the dominant modes of inquiry in this time. Demir and Nyhan (2008: 83) note that the politics-administration dichotomy sought to minimize politics in public administration by prescribing expertise, neutrality, and hierarchy. This values more than of all was insisted in the thirties. Van Riper (1984: 209-10) also argued that  between, 1910 and 1950, there did in the literature and practice of public administration a kind of distance between politics and administration. The need for a sharp division was justified to permit scientific methods to be established, and these methods both closed off administration to the untrained politician and at the same time made the administrator an expert who was above politics. In Gulick’s view, the politics and administration were differentiated not in terms of principle, but in terms of specialization and the division of labor. He noted: The reason for separating politics from administration is not that their combination is a violation of a principle of government. The 134 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate reason for insisting that the elected legislative and executive officials shall not interfere with the details of administration, and that the rank and file of the permanent administrators shall be permanent and skilled and shall not meddle with politics, is that this division of work makes use of specialization and appears to give better results than a system where such a differentiation does not exist. (cited by Waldo, 1948: 124) Summarizing such views, It should be said that the dichotomy model was not a direct idea identified by founders of public administration but a transformation of those ideas to make them part of the mechanistic approach that dominated in the twenties and thirties. The idea of strict separation (dichotomy model) was part of scientific management and the principles of administration that abandoned starting 1940 and replaced by ideas that emphasized interaction between politics and administration. 3. Interaction between policy and administration Although in the thirties some of authors such as Gaus, White, and Dimock had been arguing that administrators should have a role in policymaking, but During the 1940s the dichotomy dominated the field of public administration.  In the late 1940s and early 1950s, The politics-administration Dichotomy was increasingly criticized, came under attack and was rejected by many authors. Waldo (1948: 128) reviewed the extensive literature of the issue and concluded that any simple division of government into politics and administration is inadequate. He noted: As the 1930s advanced, doubt and dissent increased. In the 1940s refutation and repudiation came to the fore. By the 1950s it had become common to refer to the politics administration dichotomy as an outworn if not ludicrous creed (1987: 93).  We can see the most criticism in Appleby’s work. In â€Å"Policy and Administration† (1949), Appleby identified politics as everything having to do with the government and everything the government does. Thus, he concluded, administration could indeed not be no part of it (1949: 3). In Appleby’s view, it is impossible to draw a meaningful institutional distinction between politics or policy and administration. Any issue dealt with in the hierarchy of government is regarded as policy by those who operate below the level at which it is settled, and as administration by those operating above that level. If an issue becomes more controversial, it will rise in the hierarchy and, thus, will be seen as policy by a greater number of functionaries and as administration by a smaller number of functionaries. Appleby noted that in the perspective of an outside observer or the public administration theorist, policy and administration are treated together at every level (1949: 22). Thus, whether an issue is policy or administration becomes completely relative; policy and administration are only two sides of the same coin, ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 135 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate and there is no use in speaking about them as two distinct governmental functions. Appleby concluded that public administration is not autonomous, exclusive or isolated but is policy making nonetheless (1949: 170). He also  did draw a horizontal line between partisan politics and other forms of politics: Everything having to do with the government and everything the government does is political, for politics is the art and science of government. But in terms of mass, only a small part of politics is partisan (1949: 153).  In the 1960sthe role of administrators in policy-making process emphasized because of governments was increasingly troubled by complex social, economic, and security problems such as civil rights and poverty. This tendency was string then din the 1970s, when the Vietnam War, Watergate, and the energy crisis all had an impact on the balance between politics and administration. Because of the political nature of administration was highlighted, and the dichotomy denounced as false, many believed that administrators should actively apply their personal values and judgments to policy-making (Yang & Holzer, 2005: 116).One of reasons for rejecting separation of politics-administration was due ethical considerations that were evident in the New Public Administration (NPA). Frederickson (1976), with aware of the need of public organizations to administrative values such as efficiency and economy, emphasized that values such as equity, ethics, responsiveness, participation, and citizenship should be considered. He argued that this democratic values should be executed by administrators as responsible individuals. Administrators for the first time were asked to utilize their personal value judgments in public decision-making. Therefore, politics and administration could not to be separate of each other. 4. Return to the dichotomy: separation of policy and administration Some of authors believe that in the 1980s observe a return to the dichotomy with emphasize on privatization, decentralization and productivity (Uveges & Keller, 1997).This return continued in the 1990s under the Reinventing Government and the New Public Management (NPM) Movements. The Reinventing Government by emphasize on need to change administrator’s role from rowing to steering reincarnated the dichotomy in five ways: distinguishing between policy and management, extending it from the inner workings of government to the body politic, freeing administration from political controls in the form of red tape, redefining accountability, and specifying congressional action as politics and presidential action as management (Carroll, 1995).  Separation policymaking of policy-implementation also supported by the New Public Management. Hughes, one of the NPM proponents, notes: Public organizations do things; governments now want to know what they do; how well they do it; who is in charge and taking responsibility for results. The primary way of achieving this is to let the manager manage. Meaning that senior manager would themselves 136 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate be responsible for the achievement of results rather than being an administrator†¦. Disaggregate anion means splitting large department into different parts by setting up agencies to deliver services for a small policy department†¦. In some ways disaggregation could be seen as a reversion to the ideas of Woodrow Wilson with an organizational split between policy and administration in the division of policy departments and agencies (Hughes, 2003: 62-5). According to Christensen and Laegreid (2001: 96-101)The economic way of thinking in NPM points to an almost generally accepted axiom that it is more efficient to separate political and administrative functions than them integrated, as traditionally has been the case in most countries. The argument is that a division between these functions makes it clearer that they are different functions with different actors that is the politicians should set the goals and the civil servants implement the policies. They believed that One argument in favour of a sharper division between politics and administration is that an integrated solution makes politicians vulnerable to influence and pressure from civil servants, that civil servants threaten to invade the political sphere and that a stricer separation of functions makes it easier to control the civil service. The  Slogan let the managers manage, meaning discretion for managers and boards and not too much daily interference from the political leaders. The implication of this slogan is that chief executives are better at managing and therefore should be given the discretion and opportunity to do so, thereby reducing the burden on the political leadership and, through a sharp division between politics and administration, increase political control. Christensen and Laegreid argued that through devolution and contracting, NPM has sought to separate policy-making more clearly from policy administration and implementation. Policy –makers make policy and then delegate its implementation to managers and hold them accountable by contract. 5. Reconceptualization of dichotomy: two dichotomies In recent two decades, some of authors have critic to the classical conceptualization of the politics-administration dichotomy and attempt to reconceptualize it. Montjoy and Watson (1995: 232-3) Argue that some of Wilson’s statements certainly do advocate a separation of politics and administration, but what would mean in practice depends upon the definitions of the key terms. They point out that Wilson actually dealt with two different types of politics, one focused on partisanship and patronage, the other on policy making. Wilson Clearly wished to separate patronage politics from administration and Whether he advocated a dichotomy of policy making and administration is another issue. Regardless of what he wrote in The Study of Administration, the implications of his later work are unavoidable: administrators were politicians; they must have the freedom to make ethical decisions. ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 137 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate Montjoy and Watson believe that much of the confusion about politics and administration comes from Goodnow. They ask that was Goodnow’s dichotomy between politics and administration or between policy making and  administration, or were politics and policy making interchangeable for him? They offer an interpretation of Goodnow’s work based on the assumption of two dichotomies: a conceptual dichotomy between policy and administration and an institutional dichotomy between politics and administration. Montjoy and Watson assert that Goodnow used both â€Å"politics† and â€Å"policy† to refer to the expression of the popular will and â€Å"administration† to refer to the execution of that will. They ask Does politics mean patronage or does it mean policy making, or are the three concepts indistinguishable? They argue that the answer may lie in the definition of politics that Goodnow offers in the beginning of Politics and Administration: The act or vocation of guiding or influencing the policy of a government through the organization of a party among its citizens-including, therefore, not only the ethics of government, but more especially, and often to the exclusion of ethical principles, the art of influencing public opinion, attracting and marshalling voters, and obtaining and distributing public patronage, so far as the possession of offices may depend upon the political opinions or political services of individuals (Goodnow, 1900: 19). Montjoy and Watson content that this statement yields two important points. First, politics is definition ally limited to that part of the policy-making process, the act or vocation of guiding or influencing the policy of a government, which is accomplished through a particular method, the organization of a party among its citizens. Second, the application of that method explicitly includes patronage. They conceive of Goodnow’s expression of the public will as the entire policy-making process, including elections. Politics is that part of the process related to political parties. Therefore, they state, we are left with two dichotomies. The first is conceptual, dividing the functions of government into the expression of a will and the execution of that will. The second is operational, the doctrine that the filling of administrative offices (those primarily concerned with execution of the will) should not be used by candidates to attract support in the contest for electoral offices. Another argument about reconceptualization of the politics-administration dichotomy has been done by Overeem. Overeem (2005: 318-22) draw adisti nction between two types of politics: â€Å"partisan politics† and â€Å"policy politics† and state that in these two different types of politics, the stakes are different. In â€Å"partisan politics† the stakes are the powers to make decisions (votes and offices), whereas in â€Å"policy politics† the stakes are the contents of those decisions. Public administrators can have an involvement in the latter, but not in the former. In brief, public administrators cannot (and should not) be excluded from the kind of politics that is inherent to policy-making, but they can (and should) be excluded from politics that has a more partisan character. Overeem explain that in its mid-twentieth century reconceptualization, the politics-administration dichotomy was not so much 138 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate thickened in its intensity as it was broadened in its scope. The Dichotomy’s critics suggested that its intention had been to keep administration not merely out of (partisan) politics, but out of the making of policy as well. Often, the dichotomy’s critics took what had been conceptualized as a contrast between politics and administration for the parallel, alternative, and occasionally synonymous dichotomy between policy and administration. Indeed, the two dichotomies were more and more taken as synonyms. Overeem conclude that public administration contrasts with two dichotomy: 1) politics-administration dichotomy and 2) policyadministration dichotomy. He assert that later should be rejected but former should be accepted. 6. New trends: complementarity of politics and administration We will finish our argument with focus on a new model about politics and administration relationship that named the Complementarity Model. Svara (2001: 179-80) explain that the complementarity Model of politics and administration is based on the premise that elected officials and administrators join together in the common pursuit of sound governance. Complementarity entails separate parts, but parts that come together in a mutually supportive way. Complementarity stresses interdependence along with distinct roles;  compliance along with independence; respect for political control along with a commitment to shape and implement policy in ways that promote the public interest; deference to elected incumbents along with adherence to the law and support for fair electoral competition; and appreciation of politics along with support for professional standards. Svara believe that Complementarity recognizes the interdependence and reciprocal influence between elected officials and administrators. Elected officials and administrators maintain distinct roles based on their unique perspectives and values and the differences in their formal positions, but the functions they perform necessarily overlap. The figure of bellow show different parts of Complementarity Model. The first part is the political dominance that results from high political control and low administrative independence is the condition that has been attacked by reformers from the Progressive Era to the present because of their concern for loss of administrative competence and the potential for political corruption. The second part is Bureaucratic autonomy that is feared by critics of the administrative state, who argue that administrators are self-controlling and advance agency interests rather than the public interest. In both situations, Svara explain, either the level of control or independence is extreme, and the key reciprocating value is not present: Politicians do not respect administrators, or administrators are not committed to accountability. The third part is the combination of low control and low independence, producing a â€Å"live and let live† attitude among officials. Svara believe that the dichotomy model, which is based on totally separate spheres, would logically fit in this category. ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 139 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate Elected Officials: degree of control Low High Stalemate or laissez-fair Political Dominance Low Complementarity Administrators: level of independence High Political respect administrative Competence and commitment Administrators are Committed to accountability and responsiveness Bureaucratic autonomy Figure1. Understanding the interaction between Politicians and Administrator (Svara, 2001, 180) The final part that is the largest space in figure is the zone of complementarity. Svara argue that most interactions among officials reflect  complementarity, and evidence from local governments in 14 countries supports this generalization. Although in earlier times there was greater emphasis on subordination of administrators linked to greater reliance on hierarchy as an organizational principle, interdependence and reciprocal influence are common and longstanding. A condition that presumably was common earlier in the century, high accountability and moderate independence, would fit in the upper-left corner of the complementarity quadrant, whereas recent experience with moderate control and extensive administrative initiative would be in the lower-right corner. Svara assert that Complementarity Model entails ongoing interaction, reciprocal influence, and mutual deference between elected officials and administrators. Administrators help to shape policy, and they give it specific content and meaning in the process of implementation. Elected officials oversee implementation, probe specific complaints about poor performance, and attempt to correct problems with performance through fine-tuning. Conclusions ` The purpose of this article was to review literature of the politicsadministration dichotomy. In order to, the author’s view about issue on different time periods was argued. The issue of politics and administration is one of the most important issues in public administration as Denhardt introduce dates one of the five main issues in public administration (Denhardt & Baker, 2007: 121). Therefore, that is not to be false if we say that the politics-administration dichotomy is the important part of the public administration identity. Thus, awareness of its history can be effective in properly understand the field of public administration and rightly recognition its problems. There are a number of reasons why the dichotomy idea has persisted. It is convenient to explain the division of roles in terms of total separation because it is 140 ADMINISTRAÃ… ¢IE ÅžI MANAGEMENT PUBLIC ï€ ´ 17/2011 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate easier to explain than a model based on sharing roles, particularly since the separation model does not limit the actual policy contributions of administrators in practice. At the same time, the dichotomy idea shields administrators from scrutiny and serves the interests of elected officials who can pass responsibility for unpopular decisions to administrators (Peters, 1995: 177-8). In founders view of public administration, politics and administration should be separated. But, it must be notice that their intention was to remove political interferes of public administration practices. It can be say that founders never clearly rejected the role of public administrators in policy making. They simultaneously emphasized on separation and insulation of administrators from political interference, on one hand, and interaction and incorporation of administrative contributions in the design and the implementation of public policy, on the other hand. Wilson and Goodnow as founding fathers of the field never advocated the dichotomy attributed to them (Golembiewski, 1977; Rabin and Bowman, 1984: 4; Rohr, 1986: 31; Van Riper, 1984: 209-10), It was after them and under the scientific management and the principles of administration movements that separation policy-making of policyimplementation favored and accepted. Under this movements the strict version of separation was formed. After the classic public administration and under the new public administration approach and because of need to values such as equity, ethics, responsiveness, participation, and citizenship the role of administrators in policymaking was emphasized. In this time, Because of the political nature of administration was highlighted, and the dichotomy denounced as false, many believed that administrators should actively apply their personal values and judgments to policy-making. In 80 and 90 decades under the Reinventing Government and the New Public Management Movements observe a return to the dichotomy. Reinventing Government by introduce rowing and steering metaphor emphasized on Separation of policy-making and policy-implementation by freeing  administration from political controls and distinguishing between policy and management. NPM, also, through devolution and contracting has sought to separate policy-making more clearly from policy administration and implementation. Policy-makers make policy and then delegate its implementation to managers and hold them accountable by contract. Nowadays, it is widely regarded both unfeasible and undesirable to keep politics and administration apart and their relationship is presently depicted as complementary rather than dichotomous (Frederickson & Smith, 2003: 15-40; Riggs, 1987; Svara, 1998, 1999, and 2001; Svara & Brunet, 2003). Svarapresent the idea of complementarity as a conceptual framework that includes differentiation along with interaction as an alternative to the dichotomy. The Complementarity model is based on conditions for maintaining the distinction between politics and administration, while at the same time describing how the two are intermixed and prescribing values for preserving this complex relationship. ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC MANAGEMENT ï€ ´ 17/2011 141 Politics-Administration Dichotomy: A Century Debate References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. APPLEBY, P., 1949, Policy and Administration, Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. CAIDEN, G. 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